When it comes to grammar, it is quite easy to get lost in the terminology, and navigating these woods can be a headache. The following is not an atypical sentence: “there needs to be a comma after that independent clause as it is connected to a second independent clause via a conjunction (as seen by the introduction of a new subject)”. Given the ultimate function of grammar is clarity, and it should serve its primary duty of avoiding confusion, explanations laden with jargon are quite ironic.
However, writing is not just an exploratory exercise in creativity, it is a craft, and like any craft, there are fundamentals. When building a house, blueprints are vital, and clauses are part of the architecture of writing. Sentiment aside, the importance of understanding clauses are two-fold:
- It allows you to better identify and correct any obscurity in meaning
- It can serve as a valuable tool to improve the flow of a piece of writing
So let’s start from the beginning.
Subjects and Objects
It is my full intention to keep this explanation of clauses as simple as I can, but some terms are important to remember, especially if rules are dependent on them. The definition of a sentence is generally considered to be that which contains a subject and a predicate. Let’s just get rid of one of these terms from the offset: a “predicate” is a fancy word for “the part of a sentence that contains a verb and says something about the subject”. So, what is the subject?
Let’s pretend you are in a forest. It’s a dark forest, and the atmosphere is thick. There’s a killer on the loose, and before long, you are hunted. There are two ways of explaining this situation (and for sake of clarity, you’ll be referred to as the “survivor”):
- The survivor is being hunted by the killer
- A killer is hunting the survivor
The subject in this context depends on whether you are writing from the perspective of the survivor or the killer. A subject is basically what the sentence is talking about, usually the perspective of the scene.
So, in the case of the first example, the survivor is the subject, being hunted by the killer. In the second example, the killer is the subject, hunting the survivor. From this point, it isn’t hard to work out what the object is. Once the basics have been grasped, it is worth looking at the differences between indirect or direct objects, but essentially, an object is the recipient of the subject (which can affect or be affected by them). If you’re ever unsure, find the subject, and then the object should be clear by its interaction.
In the first example, the survivor (subject) is being hunted by the killer (object). In the second, the killer (subject) is hunting the survivor (object).
Native English speakers are usually able to identify, in most cases, when a sentence is not grammatically correct, so an easy trick to remembering subjects and objects is to remember the differing forms of pronouns. “I/he/she” are subject pronouns and “me/him/her” are object pronouns. Given this, to identify subjects and objects, all you have to do is replace the people or nouns in the sentence with pronouns:
In the case of “the killer is hunting the survivor”, we cannot write “him is hunting her” or “he is hunting she”, so the only correct form is “he/she is hunting him/her”. Since “he/she” are subjects and “him/her” are objects, it is clear that the killer in this example is the subject and the survivor is the object. The same principle can be applied in the other example, where “the survivor is being hunted by the killer” becomes “he/she is being hunter by him/her”.
In any sentence, there can be multiple objects, subjects, and even predicates. This is where clauses come into play.
A Tale of Two Clauses
In more complex sentences, in order to create a flow within writing, there can be multiple units (or “clauses”) tied together by a logical thread. Understanding the relationship between clauses and punctuation is essential to more developed writing, and an error in application can create unfortunate (if amusing) results. Without a complete grasp of this fundamental, meaning can become obscure and ambiguous.
Fundamentally, there are two ‘main’ clauses: the independent clause and the dependent clause.
An independent clause is basically that which can stand alone as a sentence in its own right (in other words, containing a subject and a predicate).
A dependent clause, you guessed it, is that which relies on the independent clause to exist. This is sometimes referred to as the “subordinate clause”. There are two types of dependent clauses:
- Non-essential clauses (sometimes called “non-restrictive”)
- Essential clauses (sometimes called “restrictive”)
The difficulty in these sub-categories is their use of the word “essential”. I have spoken to writers in the past who have gotten confused at the idea that something “non-essential” should be in a piece of writing at all. In this context, it is important to remember that “essential” does not imply necessity in the traditional sense.
A non-essential clause is simply that which does not alter the meaning of the sentence depending on its inclusion. This may still add value and may still be “necessary”, but removing it would still keep the meaning of the sentence intact.
An essential clause is “essential” to the meaning of the sentence, in that the meaning will change depending on whether or not it is included.
Here’s an example. Let’s say the killer in the previous scenario is wielding an axe. Take the following two sentences:
- The killer, who is wielding an axe, is hunting the survivor
- The killer who is wielding an axe is hunting the survivor
Obviously, you’ll note that the clause “who is wielding an axe” is the same in wording, which is because the difference between a non-essential clause and an essential clause is usually determined by the use of commas. The first example is an example of a non-essential clause. This is because if you were to remove the clause from the sentence, it would still mean the same thing: the killer is hunting the survivor. The only thing that changes is the additional information of him wielding an axe.
However, in the second example, it is to be assumed that there are multiple killers, and the one who is wielding an axe is hunting the survivor (as opposed to the killers who are not wielding an axe). The use of the dependent clause changes the meaning depending on its inclusion, making it an essential clause. Think of the commas here as a signal to the reader: if there are commas around it, it is meant to be read as additional information. If there aren’t, it is meant to be read as essential information, and the “who is wielding an axe” part of the sentence differentiates the killer from other non-axe wielding killers.
Let’s look at a second example:
- The cat, which was black, ran into the alleyway
- The cat which was black ran into the alleyway
The first is a non-essential clause. The meaning of the sentence is that the cat ran into the alleyway, with the additional information that the cat was black.
The second is an essential clause. The meaning of the sentence is that only the cat which was black ran into the alleyway, excluding the cats which were not black (implying there were multiple cats of different colours).
It is worth noting, however, that some phrases are typically essential by nature, such as in the case of “because” (reasonal) and “if” (conditional). Obviously, context means everything, but in my experience, you would seldom place a comma before these phrases.
An easy way to remember these is by removing the dependent clause. If the sentence still makes sense and holds the same meaning, it is non-essential.
Hopefully, this is starting to make sense. Let’s move on to punctuation.
Punctuation
Generally speaking, the structure of a sentence is flexible. A dependent clause may appear before an independent clause:
“Wielding an axe, the killer is hunting the survivor.”
Two independent clauses may be connected together by a conjunction (“and”, “but”, etc.):
“The killer is hunting the survivor, and the survivor panics.”
A sentence may also string together multiple dependent (non-essential and essential) and independent clauses:
“Wielding an axe, the killer is hunting the survivor, but the survivor is smart and is able to escape”
In the above example, “wielding an axe” is a non-essential dependent clause, followed by the independent clause “the killer is hunting the survivor”. This independent clause is followed by a second independent clause (connected by the conjunction “but”), which is then finished with the essential clause “and is able to escape”. Remember what I said about the jargon?
Let’s break this sentence down. There are two independent clauses here: “the killer is hunting the survivor” and “the survivor is smart”. What identifies these as “independent” is the use of a subject and predicate. As before, we couldn’t say “him is hunting her, but her is smart”, or any other variation, so we have to say “he (subject) is hunting her (object), but she (subject) is smart”. These two clauses are separated by the conjunction “but”.
At the beginning of this, relating to the subject-killer, you have the dependent clause “wielding an axe”. This is non-essential, but even if it were essential, it would have to be split off with a comma as it comes directly before its related independent. At the end, we have an essential clause that is a dependent due to its lack of a subject, and it is essential to the sentence. If this were removed, it would change the meaning.
What matters here is the use of punctuation. These are the five basic rules:
- Always place a comma after a dependent clause if it comes before the independent (“wielding an axe, the killer…”)
- Always place a comma before the conjunction when connecting two independent clauses (“…the survivor, but the the survivor is smart…”)
- Always split off a non-essential clause with commas regardless of where it falls in the sentence (“Wielding an axe,”)
- Never split off an essential clause with a comma unless it appears before the independent (“and is able to escape”)
- Never place two independent clauses next to eachother without a conjunction (“…the survivor, but the survivor…”)
However, these rules are basic; they are the tools with which to experiment. And especially in fiction, these rules are not so fixed. In the case of rule 2, there may be circumstances where omitting this comma is acceptable to improve flow, provided it does not cause confusion. In the case of rule 5, omitting the conjunction is referred to as a “comma splice” and may be acceptable only in works of fiction to closer convey the voice of the narrator (although this should be avoided in formal writing).
Take-Away
- Clauses are an important tool to improve flow and ensure clarity
- Sentences are defined as having a “subject” and a “predicate”
- Independent clauses are able to stand alone as a sentence
- Dependent clauses come in two types: non-essential and essential
- Non-essential clauses will not change the meaning of the sentence depending on their inclusion
- Essential clauses will affect the meaning of the sentence depending on whether or not they are included
- Any dependent clause that precedes its related independent should be separated by a comma
- Non-essential clauses should be separated by commas regardless of where they appear
- Essential clauses should not be separated by a comma (unless they precede the independent)
- Two independent clauses connected together should be done via a comma and conjunction
What is important to note is that grammar changes, and fiction especially defies these rules of punctuation and clauses frequently for one key reason: it is not how their character would say it. In dialogue, many of these rules are exempt. In narration, these rules can be experimented with. Either way, a basic understanding can be the groundwork to well-rounded writing and an invaluable troubleshoot for obscurity or bad flow.
To read more about writing, as well as tips and tricks on grammar and punctuation, follow our blog for regular posts every Tuesday and Thursday! You can also follow us on Twitter @StetOnline.
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